einstein Essay -- essays research papers

He was the embodiment of pure intellect, the bumbling professor with the German accent, a comic clichà © in a thousand films. Instantly recognizable, like Charlie Chaplin's Little Tramp, Albert Einstein's shaggy-haired visage was as familiar to ordinary people as to the matrons who fluttered about him in salons from Berlin to Hollywood. Yet he was unfathomably profound — the genius among geniuses who discovered, merely by thinking about it, that the universe was not as it seemed. Even now scientists marvel at the daring of general relativity ("I still can't see how he thought of it," said the late Richard Feynman, no slouch himself). But the great physicist was also engagingly simple, trading ties and socks for mothy sweaters and sweatshirts. He tossed off pithy aphorisms ("Science is a wonderful thing if one does not have to earn one's living at it") and playful doggerel as easily as equations. Viewing the hoopla over him with humorous detachment, he variously referred to himself as the Jewish saint or artist's model. He was a cartoonist's dream come true. Much to his surprise, his ideas, like Darwin's, reverberated beyond science, influencing modern culture from painting to poetry. At first even many scientists didn't really grasp relativity, prompting Arthur Eddington's celebrated wisecrack (asked if it was true that only three people understood relativity, the witty British astrophysicist paused, then said, "I am trying to think who the third p... einstein Essay -- essays research papers He was the embodiment of pure intellect, the bumbling professor with the German accent, a comic clichà © in a thousand films. Instantly recognizable, like Charlie Chaplin's Little Tramp, Albert Einstein's shaggy-haired visage was as familiar to ordinary people as to the matrons who fluttered about him in salons from Berlin to Hollywood. Yet he was unfathomably profound — the genius among geniuses who discovered, merely by thinking about it, that the universe was not as it seemed. Even now scientists marvel at the daring of general relativity ("I still can't see how he thought of it," said the late Richard Feynman, no slouch himself). But the great physicist was also engagingly simple, trading ties and socks for mothy sweaters and sweatshirts. He tossed off pithy aphorisms ("Science is a wonderful thing if one does not have to earn one's living at it") and playful doggerel as easily as equations. Viewing the hoopla over him with humorous detachment, he variously referred to himself as the Jewish saint or artist's model. He was a cartoonist's dream come true. Much to his surprise, his ideas, like Darwin's, reverberated beyond science, influencing modern culture from painting to poetry. At first even many scientists didn't really grasp relativity, prompting Arthur Eddington's celebrated wisecrack (asked if it was true that only three people understood relativity, the witty British astrophysicist paused, then said, "I am trying to think who the third p...

Humor in Assemblywomen by Aristophanes :: Assemblywomen Aristophanes Essays

Humor in Assemblywomen by Aristophanes Assemblywomen, by Aristophanes, posits a system in which the institution for the transfer of wealth within a patrimonial line is subverted by a system that closely resembles the ordering of a Greek household. In Assemblywomen, the women take power and redesign the social mechanisms. Although the Assemblywomen radically change some elements of the Greek social institution, such as private property and sexual limitation, the women remain, although in an expanded form, within the structure of a household. Male dominance is tempered but gender roles are reinforced. The institution of the household in Assemblywomen is expanded into the body politic but its fundamental nature does not change. In contrast, Oeconomicus offers a more conventional conception of the Athenian household. Ischomachos, for his own edification, presents to Socrates an idealized version of his household. Ischomachos, in his effort to impress Socrates with the skill and talents of his young wife, gives a clear account of the Athenian social norms surrounding the household. This text is useful in understanding Assemblywomen because it offers the social ideal that, to varying degrees, Aristophanes perverts. Indeed, Assemblywomen adheres to many of the ideals of the household put forth by Oeconomicus. Aristophanes does not depart completely from the conventional conception of a household but rather parodies the system by locating it in the larger context of the polis. There are a few fundamental similarities between Aristophanes’ Assemblywomen and the more conventional Oeconomicus. First, despite the female entrance into public society, there remains a strong division of labor. The men and women do not work together, but remain separate factions with gender specific tasks and duties. This separations of labor is also found in Oeconomicus when Ischomachos proclaims that, â€Å"it is a finer thing for a women to stay indoors than to spend time in the open, while it is more disgraceful for a man to stay indoors than to concern himself with outdoor things† (33,IV). Women are expected to do the tasks associated with the interior of the household. In Assemblywomen, after the women take control of the polis, they do not assume the civic duties once carried out by the men but rather try â€Å"remodeling it into one big household† (730). Humor in Assemblywomen by Aristophanes :: Assemblywomen Aristophanes Essays Humor in Assemblywomen by Aristophanes Assemblywomen, by Aristophanes, posits a system in which the institution for the transfer of wealth within a patrimonial line is subverted by a system that closely resembles the ordering of a Greek household. In Assemblywomen, the women take power and redesign the social mechanisms. Although the Assemblywomen radically change some elements of the Greek social institution, such as private property and sexual limitation, the women remain, although in an expanded form, within the structure of a household. Male dominance is tempered but gender roles are reinforced. The institution of the household in Assemblywomen is expanded into the body politic but its fundamental nature does not change. In contrast, Oeconomicus offers a more conventional conception of the Athenian household. Ischomachos, for his own edification, presents to Socrates an idealized version of his household. Ischomachos, in his effort to impress Socrates with the skill and talents of his young wife, gives a clear account of the Athenian social norms surrounding the household. This text is useful in understanding Assemblywomen because it offers the social ideal that, to varying degrees, Aristophanes perverts. Indeed, Assemblywomen adheres to many of the ideals of the household put forth by Oeconomicus. Aristophanes does not depart completely from the conventional conception of a household but rather parodies the system by locating it in the larger context of the polis. There are a few fundamental similarities between Aristophanes’ Assemblywomen and the more conventional Oeconomicus. First, despite the female entrance into public society, there remains a strong division of labor. The men and women do not work together, but remain separate factions with gender specific tasks and duties. This separations of labor is also found in Oeconomicus when Ischomachos proclaims that, â€Å"it is a finer thing for a women to stay indoors than to spend time in the open, while it is more disgraceful for a man to stay indoors than to concern himself with outdoor things† (33,IV). Women are expected to do the tasks associated with the interior of the household. In Assemblywomen, after the women take control of the polis, they do not assume the civic duties once carried out by the men but rather try â€Å"remodeling it into one big household† (730).

The Voice of Reason

At the end of William Shakespeare’s Romeo and Juliet, Lord Capulet and Lord Montague decide to make peace. Lord Montague promises to raise a gold statue of Juliet and Lord Capulet vows to do the same for Romeo. By this point in the story, there is no doubt that the families will keep their word. However, one is left thinking whether the peace will last or not. The deaths of Mercutio, Tybalt, Juliet and Romeo were all caused by the feud between the two families, yet it took Juliet’s death, combined with Romeo’s to end the feud.The lives that were lost might be enough to maintain harmony between them for a long time, maybe forever. The Prince is the voice of reason in Romeo and Juliet. He was the one who forbade the Capulet’s and the Montague’s from fighting in the streets because they would disturb the peace. Either way, Mercutio and Tybalt died, resulting in the banishment of Romeo. However, while the Prince tried to maintain the peace, he never qui te laid down the law with the battling families. It’s like they say, if you can’t see it, it’s not there.Once the Capulet’s and the Montague’s were battling in full view of the people of Verona, the Prince just couldn’t ignore it anymore. Yet what he did had no impact on the families whatsoever. Threats didn’t scare them. So they continued hating each other. â€Å"Where be these enemies? /Capulet! Montague! /See, what a scourge is laid upon your hate,/That heaven finds means to kill your joys with love. /And I for winking at your discords too/Have lost a brace of kinsmen: all are punish'd. †(V. 3. 291-296) . In this quote, the prince is berating himself for doing almost nothing about the feud.He exclaims that because of their hatred for each other, the heavens punished them by taking their children, Juliet and Romeo. Finally understanding the horrors the feud had created, Lord Capulet and Lord Montague make amends to each other by agreeing to end the feud and raising gold statues in honor of Romeo and Juliet‘s deaths. â€Å"Capulet: O brother Montague, give me thy hand: This is my daughter’s jointure, for no more Can I demand. Montague: But I can give thee more:For I will raise her statue in pure gold;That while Verona by that name is known,There shall no figure at such rate be setAs that of true and faithful Juliet.Capulet: As rich shall Romeo's by his lady's lie;Poor sacrifices of our enmity! † (V. 3. 297-306) For generations to come, the story of Romeo and Juliet will be passed down from Capulet to Montague to Capulet, maintaining the peace and uniting the families. Maybe there will be another Montague who falls in love with a Capulet and maybe this time, the ending will be a happy one. As the Prince mournfully states â€Å" Some shall be pardon'd, and some punished:For never was a story of more woeThan this of Juliet and her Romeo. †(V. 3. 308-310)

Business ratios and formulas a comprehensive guide Essay

Net profit margin of the company shows how much the profit after-tax profit made by a business for every $1 generated in revenue or sales (Bragg, 2008). A higher net profit margin is better in comparison to that of its competitors. In 2011 and 2012, Tesco was more profitable followed by Morrison’s Supermarkets PLC. However, in 2013, Morrison’s Supermarkets PLC was more profitable followed by Sainsbury.Roce This financial ratio measures the profitability and efficiency of a company with which its capital is employed (Bragg, 2008). In 2011, Tesco was more profitable than Morrison’s Supermarkets PLC and Sainsbury. The following year, it was overtaken by Morrison’s Supermarkets PLC while Sainsbury remained the least profitable. In year 2013, Morrison’s Supermarkets PLC was the most profitable company followed by Sainsbury. Return on Equity – ROE             Return on equity shows how much profit a firm earned compared to the total amount of shareholder equity as contained in the balance sheet (Horrigan, 2010). In 2011, Tesco made a higher profit than Morrison’s Supermarkets PLC and Sainsbury. It was Morrison’s Supermarkets PLC . in year 2012 Morrison’s Supermarkets PLC and Sainsbury reported a higher profit compared to the previous year while Tesco reduced it profitability. However, the three companies reported lower profit in 2013 than in 2011 and 2012. Morrison’s Supermarkets PLC was more profitable followed by Sainsbury in 2013. Gross Profit Margin             It is used to assess company’s financial health by showing the proportion of money that is left over from sales revenue after deducting the cost of goods sold. It shows the financial health of a company (Jenkinson, 2011). In 2011, Tesco had the highest financial health followed by Morrison’s Supermarkets PLC. In year 2012, all the three companies reported lower gross profit margin. Morrison’s Supermarkets PLC and Sainsbury have had a stable gross profit margin.Net asset turnover This is a financial measurement intended to measure how a company turns its assets into revenue (Horrigan, 2010). In 2011, Sainsbury was the most efficient company in turning assets into revenue compared to Morrison’s Supermarkets PLC and Tesco. Tesco was performed the least in turning assets into revenue. In 2012, all the three companies had a lower net asset turnover with Sainsbury having the higher ratio followed by Morrison’s Supermarkets PLC. In 2013, Tesco and Sainsbury increased their ratio while Morrison’s Supermarkets PLC’s ratio decreased. Sainsbury still had the highest ratio followed by Morrison’s Supermarkets PLC.Efficiency and effectiveness Ratios Asset turnover ratio             This is a ratio of a firm’s sales to its assets. It is an efficiency ratio that shows how successfully a company uses its assets to generate revenue. A comparison of asset turnover ratio for the three companies shows that in 2011 Sainsbury was the most efficient company followed by Tesco in turning assets into revenue. In 2012, Tesco showed a decrease in efficiency which the other two companies increased they’re efficient. All the three companies increased their efficiency in using assets to generate sales with Morrison’s Supermarkets PLC having the highest ratio followed by Sainsbury (Jenkinson, 2011). The debtor’s day’s ratio             It is a measure of how quickly cash is collected from debtors. Different periods are compared for the same company since it is less meaningful since results largely depend on the nature of the business. Tesco is the most efficient company in collecting cash. Morrison’s Supermarkets PLC and Sainsbury have also been decreasing the number of days with Tesco having a lower collection period (Novak, 2009). Supplier credit days This shows the number of days that a company takes to pay its suppliers (Novack, 2009). In 2011 and 2012, the numbers of days for Morrison’s Supermarkets PLC and Sainsbury has been increasing which can be a sign of financial hardship or increase confidence of suppliers on the company. Tesco has a high ratio which could be a sign of a financial crisis. Stock holding period             It refers to the period between the purchase of a product and its sale. There is a general decrease in the stock holding period for the three companies indicating an improvement in investment performance. Sainsbury have the highest holding period followed by Morrison’s Supermarkets PLC (Palmer, 2013). Liquidity and capital ratiosQuick Ratio             This determines if the company has resources to pay its short term liabilities with its liquid assets. The analysis shows that Morrison’s Supermarkets PLC has the highest ability to pay its short-term debt followed by Sainsbury (Peles, 2008). Quick ratio             It measures how a company can use its near cash or quick assets to retire its current liabilities immediately. Analysis shows that Morrison’s Supermarkets PLC has the highest ability to convert its near cash items into cash in order to pay the debt followed by Sainsbury.Gearing ratiosDebt/equity ratio It shows how a company finances its growth. Sainsbury has the highest debt in its capital structure compared to Tesco and Morrison. Tesco has the least debt ratio (Peles, 2008). Times interest covered             This ratio is a measure of number of times a business can make the interest payments with its earnings on its debt before interest and taxes. Morrison has the lowest possibility of bankruptcy followed by Sainsbury. Capital gearing ratio             It measures financial strength of a company. Tesco is a high risky investment to investors. In 2013, Morrison was second after Tesco in terms of riskiness. Investors expect a high return in the future in Sainsbury compared to Morrison and in Tesco. Dividend yield             It shows how much a company pays out the shareholders in divided relative to share price. Sainsbury have the highest dividend yield showing that investors get a lot of funds for investing in Sainsbury. When share price increases, shares with high dividend yield earn more cash. Investors who need cash prefer investing in shares that have high dividend yield. Dividend cover             This shows the number of times dividends of a company paid to shareholders can be paid out of annual profits after tax. It is an indication of the probability which shows that dividends can be maintained in the future. In 2013, Morrison had the highest divide cover followed by Sainsbury (Shimerda, 2011).Corporate strategy Morrison’s Supermarkets PLC can increase its profitability by using Tesco as a benchmark for its operations. This is because Tesco has a higher net profit margin and Return on capital employed. Morrison’s Supermarkets PLC has not been effectively in efficiently utilizing their assets in generating more revenue. It should ensure that acquisitions are attractive and that they help the company increase its return. It should also ensure that they produce better products and services in order to combat competition. Some assets should also be sold. Morrisons Supermarkets PLC should also reduce the amount of debt from their capital structure. This is because it ranks second after Tesco in terms of capital gearing ratio. Debtor’s collection period should be reduced to a minimum. References Bragg, S. M. (2008). Business ratios and formulas a comprehensive guide. Hoboken, N.J.: Wiley. Horrigan, J. O. (2010). Financial ratio analysis: an historical perspective. New York: Arno Press. Jenkinson, N. H. (2011). Investment, profitability and the valuation ratio. London: Economics Division, Bank of England. Novack, D. E. (2009). Liquidity Ratios And Recent British Monetary Experience. The Journal of Finance, 13(4), 510-526. Palmer, J. E. (2013). Financial ratio analysis. New York, N.Y.: American Institute of Certified Public Accountants. Peles, Y. C., & Schneller, M. I. (2008). Liquidity Ratios and Industry Averages-New Evidence. Abacus, 15(1), 13-22. Schmidgall, R. S., & Defranco, A. L. (2009). Ratio Analysis: Financial Benchmarks for the Club Industry. The Journal of Hospitality Financial Management , 12(1), 1-14. Shimerda, T. A. (2011). Financial ratios as predictors of profitability. Ann Arbor, Mich.: University Microfilms International. Source document

Ethics, innovation and entrepreneurship Essay

With reference to one or two organization that you have studied, discuss the influence of ethics and innovation on the role of entrepreneurship (entrepreneur) and intrapreneurship (intrapreneur). Conceptual approaches play a vital role in influencing the role of entrepreneurship and intrapreneurship in an organization. Innovation, which is one of the concepts, is the ability to think anew by developing new services or products. It is synonymous with risk taking as defined in the entrepreneurial behavior. Organizations that create innovative products take on the greatest risk because they create new markets. It is the act to carve a new niche in it, as deemed by most entrepreneurs. Ethics, on the other hand is the basic concepts and fundamental principles of decent human conduct. Organizations that mobilize this conduct concerned with decisions and what and how to do it. For example, ethical considerations in the role of entrepreneurship and intrepreneurship are revolved around the ways of an organization approaches its customers by instilling good values throughout the conduct, and also through consideration in the branding of the products or services, based on morality as it portrays the image of the organization. These two concepts influence the survival of an organization in the modern world to cater the society’s demands. One of the organizations that best fit these criterions is IKEA. IKEA has introduced various ethical conducts throughout the century. One of its most significance considerations is that IKEA introduced IWAY. It is an ethic code that had been introduced by the founder of the organization as a code of conduct between the organization and its suppliers since the year 2000. It encompasses guidelines concerning working conditions, prevention of child labour, the environment and responsible forestry management. This ethical conduct is to ensure that the suppliers won’t go overboard although things may seem inevitable as most suppliers don’t put that much of concern regarding the issues and most organizations seek for reduced cost. However, IKEA prioritizes morality, and dare to be venturesome, in starting their business with ofits from the quality. This ethical conducts inhibit bribery and anything related to the impropriety andanother organization as it is to ensure that their products are top-notch and can initiate a much greater pr results in creating quality products for the customers, hence providing customers the best of what they should opt for from an organization. It will  promote trust in business, and enhance in the growth of likely more organizations alike to adhere to the same code of conduct resulting a better lifestyle in a society. People benefits from getting to use quality products, while organization and suppliers gain profits as the business go viral from the trust embedded by the customers. However, this code of conduct, to a certain extent, won’t be able to stand a chance against the long run of the business. From time to time, organizations should revise on how they conduct their business as policies change overtime in order to adapt to the current demand of the world. IWAY can’t stay appr opriate for organizations as benefits and importance would be totally different years after. Hence suppliers will end up breaking the guidelines, resulting in contract breaches causing damages and loss to both organizations. Code of conduct, is about refinement in order to get it sustainably carried out, yielding its finest outcomes. In the innovative aspect, IKEA had been coming up with the concept of sustaining the price by introducing the ‘do-it-yourselves’ concept. Lowest price is the basis of IKEA’s concept. IKEA identify new customer needs for furniture from not just from those who can afford but also among the young and less wealthy. So the founder had came out with the idea of designing furniture in kit form, leaving the customer to put them together by themselves hence, reduce the cost of assembly. The furniture is put in flat-cardboard boxes, so that customers can access to the self-service warehouse without using any third-parties. This results in almost 80% of reduced cost for transportation. This innovation, as deemed to be potently reducing most of the cost, comes from having the customers engage in the idea of ‘do-it-yourselves’. IKEA’s prices have been 30% below any other traditional furniture manufacturers. Its contemporary and innovative avant garde idea had garnered both the attention of customers and suppliers. This results in impactful effects on the society as more classes of people would be able to possess high quality products and furniture. IKEA’s ‘do-it-yourselves’ furniture not just exhibit the exquisite design and sophisticated image from the company but indicates their stand in providing quality products in affordable price. This will entirely improve the social standard of a society and cater the demand of the customers, to own furniture that suits their social living within the current globalization. However, this strategy is not foolproof. There have  been numbers of debates on how customers comment that some I KEA’s products are complicated to assemble and in further action, require the need of an expert hence require more expenses. This will get us back to square one where buyers would have to pay for assembling the products. The idea of ‘do-it-yourselves’ is vividly attracting attention of customers and suppliers however, it would be better if proper guidelines and further proposal is planned for this strategy to work. Entrepreneurs are gambling to the fact that they’re selling unfinished products to the customers hoping profits in return, however this won’t be likely to occur without proper planning and detailed reviews. As discussed in the passage above, IKEA is been putting priorities to both the suppliers and also the customers. Attention on the suppliers was to ensure that the raw materials used reach the standard of quality to yield the best products. Customers were given priorities in the aspect of wanting them to buy the products, by taking care their needs, and demands. Exclusion of any of these two societies would leave a profound impact to IKEA itself. But in this aspect, it would be better if slight inclination of priorities were given to the suppliers instead of the customers. A great enforcement on how the expensive raw materials should have been taken into count by IKEA, is essential and should undergo ethical inspection, so that it gratifies the satisfaction of both the supplier and customers. Any organization should be aware that, if the materials are not off good quality, this will affect the selling process, as well as will hinder the profits gained. It is for us to realize that even though entrepreneurship is about approaching the customers need, venturing to their demands, it is highly recommended that we should look back and reflect that without having proper supplies and the right suppliers, none of that would happen. To deduce, both the concepts, innovation and ethics influence the role of entrepreneurship and intrapreneurship in an organization. Without the actualization of these two concepts, IKEA won’t be able to achieve such influences in the modern world of furnishing.

Power and Cultural Schools of Thought

The ‘Power’ and ‘Cultural’ Schools of Thought – A Critical Essay Introduction The ten schools of thought proposed by Mintzberg, Ahlstrand and Lampel (2009) provide an insight into different aspects of strategy formation. Mintzberg (2009) explains how we are unable to gain a complete picture of the process of strategy by simply looking at single schools alone, we must look at them all to gain the whole image. The poem the ‘Blind Men and the Elephant’, written by John Godfrey Saxe.The purpose of this essay is to evaluate and compare two schools of thought (chosen at random), the ‘power’ and ‘cultural’ schools. Analysis The ten ‘schools of thought’ are divided by Mintzberg et al (2009) into two distinct catagories. The ‘prescriptive’ schools are concerned more with how strategies should be formed and the ‘descriptive’ schools, which are more concerned with how strategies are fo rmed. The ‘power school’ is to be found in the decriptive school catagory.The influence of power on strategy formation concerning organisations can occur in two environments; the micro-environment, involving power holding parties internal to the organisation, i. e. managers, CEO’s etc. , and the macro-environment, which invoves the organisation as a single entity working with intrest groups from the external environment. It should be made clear at this point what we mean when we talk about ‘power’.French and Raven (1960) further argue that power can arise from five separate sources or bases (further explained in appendix 1); coercive power, reward power, legitimate power, referent power, and expert power. Mintzberg et al (2009) describe strategy formation in the power school as a process of negotiation, with its base discipline in political science, Kotelnikov (unknown). The eventual goal of negotiation is to form an agreement between two or more par ties whom originally may have had very different ideas about the given topic.It does not mean simply splitting the arguments down the middle, but reaching agreed goals, thorough bargaining and compromise, which will (hopefully) create positive outcomes for those involved. It is before and during this process that political influences can become prevalent. For those involved in the strategy formulation any number of ‘political games’ (Mintzberg et al (2009)) can be employed in order to affect power and influence among those involved often for personal gain or advantage.Bolman and Deal ((1997) from Mintzberg et al (2009:246) from this propose a number of points about organizational politics and among these suggest that ‘power is the most important resource’. These political games and negotiations are especially rife within the micro-environment. Once this power has been achieved Mintzberg also refers to the ‘48 Laws of Power’ written by Greene an d Elffers (1998) who having studied relevant individuals from the realms of history and present suggest a number of ways of concealing and using power for personal gain.When talking about the macro-environment negotiation becomes less of an internal affair but more so external, for example with pressure groups, suppliers and unions. In this, the macro-instance the ‘stakeholders get added to share holders and the ‘market’ gets replaced by the ‘environment’, thereby opening up the organization to a much wider array of actors and forces’ Mintzberg et al (2009:260).It is also put forward by Pfeffer and Salancik ((1978) from Mintzberg et al (2009), that under the political influences that have changed the way in which organisations operate within the external environment (through the power school) it has three strategic options available to it (further explained in appendix 2); deal with each demand as it arises, strategically withhold and disclose information and play one group against another. These three options all adapt the external environment in order to suit the needs and requirements of the organisation.The benefits of the power school allow the strongest in the organisation or the strongest organisation to survive. All sides of any occurring issues are debated and any resistance among colleagues after the decision is made is kept to a minimal. Strategy formation through the power school also allows necessary change by breaking through any obstacles that may block the way. Limitations to this school are that it uses up a great amount of energy formulating strategies and can be extremely costly. Politics can be extremely divisive and can lead to aberrations.It is also possible that no strategy is decided upon and all that happens is tactical maneuvering. Based on Mintzberg (2009). There are a number of tools available for strategy formulation within the power school (all of which are represented visually complete with advantages and disadvantages of each tool, in the appendices at the end of this paper, appendices 3 -5). The stakeholder analysis (appendix 3) is a tool used in the identification of key stakeholders and assesses their interests ‘and the ways in which these interests affect project riskiness and viability’, (Overseas Development Administration: http://www. uforic. org/gb/stake1. htm#intro). During or before the implementation of a stakeholder analysis it could also be useful to complete a (Kurt Lewin) force field analysis (appendix 4). This tool is used to; ‘investigate the balance of power involved in an issue; identify the most important players (stakeholders) and target groups for a campaign on the issue; identify opponents and allies; identify how to influence each target group’ (12Manage (unknown: http://www. 12manage. com/methods_lewin_force_field_analysis. html).Also useful within the stakeholder analysis are the internal/external and primary/seconda ry stakeholder analysis, which further help to provide a clearer picture about the positioning of an organisation’s stakeholders. Stakeholder mapping is also a very useful way of exploring power balances with the stakeholders. There are a number of approaches to stakeholder mapping which are further explained in appendix 5, these are; power / dynamism matrix (Gardener et al (1986) from 12Manage. com), power / interest matrix (Gardener et al (1986) from 12Manage. om) and power, legitimacy, urgency (Mitchell, Agle, Wood (1997) from 12Manage. com). A business example of the ‘power school’ in action can be found in Darren McCabe’s 2009 published study on a UK building society. The building society given the pseudonym Brickco, due to the retirement of the original CEO during 1996 a replacement was appointed. During the opening of the case study McCabe (2009: 158) notes that, ‘there appeared to be a struggle between the CEO and senior/middle managers over the ambiguity and contradictions that imbued the strategy discourse’.The conducted study lasted for one year and there are a number of examples of the CEO exerting his authority within the micro-environment of the organisation. After encouraging all staff to work together as a team in the July 1996 Newsletter, the CEO announced a number of changes, McCabe (2009: 159) states in relation to this, ‘as in the case of a privatized utility (Balogun and Johnson, 2004), these strategic and operational priorities were established without the involvement of managers and staff’.The ‘One Team’ strategy again seemed to be initiated alone by the CEO and also the ‘New Foundations’ program followed a similar initiation. These examples clearly identify with the CEO’s use of ‘legitimate power’ in order to set and carryout strategies of his employment along with the use of ‘political games’ in order to ensure employees work to their usual standards and also to minimize the possibility of backlash. Culture, as an aspect of management was discovered during the 1980’ due to the success of Japanese coorporations. While seemingly imitating technologies from the U.S. it was noticed that these coorporations ‘did things differently’. Mintzberg (2009: 276) writes, ‘all fingers pointed to the Japanese culture, and especially how that has been manifested in the large Japanese coorporations’. The culture school is from the descriptive category of the schools of thought (mentioned in the earier paragraphs). The ‘culture school’ has its orgins in anthropology i. e. the study of humanity and in particular cultural anthropology, ‘the study of populations based on historical records and etnographic observations (studyanthropology. rg (unknown: http://www. studyanthropology. org/types-of-anthropology)). Kotelnikov (unknown: http://www. 1000ventures. com/business_guide /crosscuttings/cultural_intelligence. html) defines culture as; ‘Broadly and simply put, â€Å"culture† refers to a group or community with which you share common experiences that shape the way you understand the world’. A more involved definition of the term from the Roshan Cultural Heritage Institute (2001), notes that culture/s can be formed around language, arts and sciences, thought, spirituality, social activity and interaction.Bringing our definition back towards our strategy school focus, corporate culture is defined as; ‘collective behavior of people using common corporate vision, goals, shared values, beliefs, habits, working language, systems and symbols’ (Kotelnikov (unknown: http://www. 1000ventures. com/business_guide/crosscuttings/cultural_intelligence. html)). An individual does not suddenly become a part of the culture of an organisation; it is a process of acculturation which itself while taking place is not visually noticeable.With in this strategy school, strategy formulation is viewed as a social process and is based on the understandings and beliefs of individuals involved with the strategy formulation process. Due to its cultural beginnings, dramatic change in strategy is discouraged but continuation is very much encouraged. ‘Strategy takes the form of perspective above all, more than positions, rooted in collective intentions and reflected in patterns by which the deeply embedded resources, of the organization are protected and used for competitive advantage’, based on Mintzberg (2009) sourced from fellner. reinhard. com (unknown: (http://fellner. reinhard. om/different_strategies. htm). Benefits of the ‘culture school’ are that it ‘emphasises the crucial role that social processes, beliefs and values are playing in decision-making and in strategy-formation’, based on Mintzberg (2009) sourced from 12Manage. com (unknown: http://www. 12manage. com/methods_mintzberg_te n_schools_of_thought. html). Also this approach assists in the process business mergers and acquisitions by bridging cultural gaps. Limitations are that cultural strategies are not at suited to radical change and it provides very little information about how the situation should emerge following the strategy implementation.When approaching strategy formation from this cultural prospective it maybe appropriate to bridge a national or even religious gap in order for the formation to occur. Hofstede ((1980) from 12Manage. com) published a framework showing five areas or ‘dimensions’ of difference, value perspectives between cultures; power distance, individualism versus collectivism, masculinity versus femininity, uncertainty avoidance and long term versus short term orientation (further explanation of these terms can be found in appendix 6).The Ashridge Mission Model (also used in the ‘strategic school’) can also be used in the formation of strategies from a cultural perspective. Developed by Andrew Campbell after a study by the Ashridge Strategic Management Centre, this model allows clear thinking for those involved; allows for discussion points with colleagues about the mission; the model can be used to not only create new missions but also analyse existing missions.The model contains four separate elements that together provide the foundation for a strong mission / strategy formation, these being; purpose, strategy, values and policies and behavioral standards (the Ashridge Mission Model can be found in appendix 7). Conclusion It is widely considered that the power and culture schools are opposites when considering strategy formulation. Power school strategy formation involves those stakeholders who hold power within the business, whereas in the culture schools strategy formation is unifying among all stakeholders.Political influence and individual concerns shape strategy formation in the power school whereas organisational culture s hapes cultural strategy formation. Although not the case one hundred percent of the time power strategy is capable of allowing radical change whether it is necessary or not, while cultural strategy is unlikely to lead to much change in strategy at all. Cultural strategy is notoriously vague when determining how a situation should eventually conclude whereas goals in a power strategy are clearly defined (if only to the creator/s of the strategy as in the case of Brickco).The Sloan Management Review (1999), sourced from 1000Ventures. com, read that champions of the power school include people who like power, politics and conspiracy, particularly the French. In the culture school champions include people who like the social, the collective and the spiritual, particularly in Scandinavia and Japan. Appendices * Appendix 1 – based on the French and Raven (1959), Five Sources of Power Located at; Reference: ChangingMinds. org. , (unknown), French and Raven’s Five Forms of Pow er, [Online], http://changingminds. org/explanations/power/french_and_raven. htm , accessed October 2010. â€Å"Coercive powerThis is the power to force someone to do something against their will. It is often physical although other threats may be used. It is the power of dictators, despots and bullies. Coercion can result in physical harm, although its principal goal is compliance. Demonstrations of harm are often used to illustrate what will happen if compliance is not gained. Coercion is also the ultimate power of all governments. Although it is often seen as negative, it is also used to keep the peace. Parents coerce young children who know no better. A person holds back their friend who is about to step out in front of a car.Other forms of power can also be used in coercive ways, such as when a reward or expertise is withheld or referent power is used to threaten social exclusion. † â€Å"Reward power One of the main reasons we work is for the money we need to conduct o ur lives. There are many more forms of reward — in fact anything we find desirable can be a reward, from a million dollar yacht to a pat on the back. Reward power is thus the ability to give other people what they want, and hence ask them to do things for you in exchange. Rewards can also be used to punish, such as when they are withheld.The promise is essentially the same: do this and you will get that. † â€Å"Legitimate power Legitimate power is that which is invested in a role. Kings, policemen and managers all have legitimate power. The legitimacy may come from a higher power, often one with coercive power. Legitimate power can often thus be the acceptable face of raw power. A common trap that people in such roles can fall into is to forget that people are obeying the position, not them. When they either fall from power or move onto other things, it can be a puzzling surprise that people who used to fawn at your feet no long do so. â€Å"Referent power This is th e power from another person liking you or wanting to be like you. It is the power of charisma and fame and is wielded by all celebrities (by definition) as well as more local social leaders. In wanting to be like these people, we stand near them, hoping some of the charisma will rub off onto us. Those with referent power can also use it for coercion. One of the things we fear most is social exclusion, and all it takes is a word from a social leader for us to be shunned by others in the group. † â€Å"Expert powerWhen I have knowledge and skill that someone else requires, then I have Expert power. This is a very common form of power and is the basis for a very large proportion of human collaboration, including most companies where the principle of specialization allows large and complex enterprises to be undertaken. Expert power is that which is used by Trades Unions when they encourage their members to strike for better pay or working conditions. It is also the power of the s pecialist R&D Engineer when they threaten to leave unless they get an exorbitant pay rise or a seat by the window. * Appendix 2 – 3 strategies available to organisations in the macro-environment Located at: Reference; Mintzberg, H. Ahlstrand, B. and Lampel, J. , (2009), Strategy Safari; The Complete Guide Through the Wilds of Strategic Management, 2nd Edition, page 261, FT Prentice Hall, Great Britain. Also includes references to; Pfeffer, J. and Salancik, G. R. (1978), The External Control of Organisatins; A Resource Dependance Perspective, Harper and Row, New York. An Organisation Can Simply Deal With Each Demand As It Arises.This is another example of Cyert and March’s (1963) sequential attention to goals, but at the level of macro power. Rather than attempting to resolve opposing demands in one fell swoop, the organisation deals with them inturn, for example worrying about pressing financial demands and then turning to concerns about market share (96). An Organ isation Can Strategically Withhold and Disclose Information. In this way it can manipulate expectations and shape outcomes. ‘A group is satisfied relative to what it expects to get [also] by what the group as obtained in the past and by what competing groups obtained.Thus, employees may be willing to forego pay increases when the company is near bankruptcy and suppliers, creditors, owners are also suffering. If the employees found that the owners were secretly profiting they would be quite irate. It is in the organizations interest to keep each group or organisation feel it is getting relatively the best deal. Knowledge of what each group is getting is best kept secret (96). An Organisation Can Play One Group against the Other. For example, ‘the demands of public employees for higher wages can be juxtaposed with the demands of local citizens’ groups for lower taxes’ (97). Appendix 3 – The Stakeholder Analysis ‘A stakeholder analysis is an appro ach that is frequently used to identify and investigate the force field (appendix 4) formed by any group or individual who can affect or is affected by the acheivement of the objective of the organisation’ (12Manage (unknown: http://www. 12manage. com/methods_stakeholder_analysis. html) A visual example of a stakeholder analysis can be found below (this is not a complete guide, only a start to show as an example). Financial Community Suppliers Owners Board of Directors Project / Organisation Government EmployeesCustomers Competitors Image 1 Benefits and Limitations Benefits; the stakeholder analysis allows for a clearer insight into the relationship with stakeholders and the groups which the individual is involved with. Also it allows for a clearer picture of how larger a part of the organisation and how much power the stakeholder holds and inturn the the priorities and associated risks of the individual. This can help in the formation of better strategies and decisions and a lso lead to a better acceptance of these strategies within the organisation (adapted from 12Manage (unknown)).Limitations; the stakeholder analysis should be conducted consistantly due to the nature of power changes of stakeholders within organisations. It is the prespective of the management that ultimately decides the position of each stakeholder. It is almost impossible to completely satisfy the wants and needs of all stakeholders which allows for a couple of potential strategies; focus on the leading stakeholder group and do what is possile for the others or try to satisfy all demands according their weight or stakeholder value perspective (adapted from 12Manage (unknown)). Appendix 4 – Lewin’s Force Field Analysis Steps to follow when conducting a forcefield analysis (Valuebasedmanagement. net (unknown); 1. Describe the situation you are currently in 2. Describe the situation you want to be in (desired) 3. Identify what will happen if no change occurs 4. List the forces affecting the movement towards the desired situation 5. List the forces preventing change towards the desired situation 6. Investigate all these forces and decide if they can be changed 7. Apply a scale and decide upon the score of each factor e. g. 1 = very weak, 10=very strong 8.List the factors, driving forces on the left and opposing factors on the right 9. Determine if change is possible 10. Discuss the appropriate action i. e. making opposing factors weaker or strengthening the driving forces 11. Allow for the possibiity that changing any factor could create new factors or change the effect of others. A visual example of the force field analysis Driving Force Resisting Force Desired Position Current Situation Resistant Factors Driving Factors Resisting Force Driving Force Resisting Force Driving Force Resisting Force Driving Force Resisting Force Image 2 Appendix 5 – Stakeholder Mapping The three examples of stakeholder mapping shown below have been sourced from 12Manage. com (http://www. 12manage. com/methods_stakeholder_mapping. html), however the reference to their origianal authors are below the images. The power / dynamism matrix assess the level of power of each stakeholder and also the dynamism of their stance in order to ascertain the amount of political effort that should be put their way. High Low Dynamism Power Low A Fewest Problems B Unpredictable but manageble High C Powerful but predictable D Greatest danger or oppertunitiesPower / Dynamism Matrix (Gardener et al (1986)) The power / interest matrix assess how much power a stakeholder has and how much interest in the organisations strategies they are likely to show, thus allowing for a measure of what kind of relationship to have with the stakeholder. Level of Interest Low High Power Low A Minimal Effort B Keep Informed High C Keep Satisfied D Key Players Power / Interrest Matrix (Gardener et al (1986)) The power, legitimacy and urgency model places stakeholder behavior into on e of seven areas depending on the combination of the characters named in the model title.Below is quoted from 12Manage. com (unknown: http://www. 12manage. com/methods_stakeholder_mapping. html) * POWER of the stakeholder to influence the organisation. * LEGITIMACY of the relationship and actions of the stakeholder with the organisation in terms of desirability, properness or appropriateness. * URGENCY of the requirements being set for the organisation by a stakeholder in terms of criticality and time-sensitivity for the stakeholder. The stakeholders who show only one of the three characteristics (number 1, 2 and 3, in the picture (below)) are defined as the Latent Stakeholders.They are sub-classified further as dormant, discretionary or demanding stakeholders. The stakeholders who show two out 3 of the characteristics (number 4, 5 and 6 in the picture (below)) are defined as Expectant Stakeholders. They are sub-classified further as dominant, dangerous or dependant stakeholders. Th e stakeholders showing all 3 characteristics are called Definitive Stakeholders. POWER (dominant) 4. LEGITIMACY 1. (dormant) (discretionary) (definitive) 6. 5. 7. 2. (dependent) (dangerous) URGENCY 3. (demanding) Power / Legitimacy / Urgency (Mitchell, Agle, Wood (1997))Appendix 6 – Hofstede’s Cultural Dimensions Reference; 12Manage (unknown: http://www. 12manage. com/methods_hofstede. html) * Power Distance – the degree of inequality amoung people which the population of a country considers as normal * Individualism Vs Collectivism – the extent to which people fee they are supposed to take care for, or to be cared for by themselves, their families r organisations they belong to * Masculinity Vs Femininity – the extent to which a culture is conducive to dominance, assertiveness and acquisition of things.Versus a culture which is more cuducive to people, feelings and quality of life. * Uncertinty Avoidance – the degree to which people in a co untry prefer structure over unstructured situations * Long term Vs Short term Orientation – Long term: values oriented towards the future, like saving and persistance. Short term: values oriented towards the past and present, like respect for tradition and fullfilling social obligations. Appendix 7 – Ashridge Mission Model Reference; 12Manage (unknown: http://www. 12manage. com/methods_campbell_ashridge_mission_model. tml) Steps: These are the ten questions by which you can measure the quality of a mission statement. * Purpose 1. Does the statement describe an inspiring purpose that avoids playing the selfish interests of the stakeholder – shareholders, customers, employees, suppliers? 2. Does the statement describe the company’s responsibility to its stakeholders? * Strategy 3. Does the statement describe a business domain and explain why it is attractive? 4. Does the statement describe the strategic positioning that the company prefers in a way that hel ps to identify the sort of competitive advantage it will look for? Values 5. Does the statement identify values that link the organisations purpose and act as beliefs that employees can feel proud of? 6. Do the values ‘resonate’ with and reinforce the organisations strategy? * Behavioral Standards 7. Does the statement describe important behavioral standards that serve as beacons of the strategy and the values? 8. Are the behavioral standards described in such a way that individual employees can judge whether they have behaved correctly or not? * Character 9. Does the statement give a portrait of the company and does it capture the culture of the organisation? 10.Is the statement easy to read? Benefits of this model; * Combines strategic and cultural motivators to guide an organisation * The model is particularly useful to ensure that a company has a clear Mission AND it has employees with a strong Sense of Mission * The model emphasises the need for a fit between strat egy and values. Aditionally the Ashridge Model recognises the importance of the link between organisational shared values and the private values of employees and managers. * Improves decision making. Raises energy levels. Reduces the need for supervision. Promotes constructive behavior.Increases satisfaction and loyalty. * Puts corporate purpose as the corner stone and starting point of a mission. Limitations of this model; * Having inappropriate values or an inappropriate sense of mission is a powerful negative influence on employee behavior. * Shared values and sense of mission are often extremly difficult to change and can become an obstacle for change. * Strongly shared values or a strong sense of mission can lead to an insularity that becomes xenophobic. * Creating a mission statement is often a time – and resource – consuming process. Assumptions of the model; Committed employees and teams perform more efficiently and more effectively than appathetic employees an d teams do. * People connect themselves more easily to values than to abstract strategic concepts. * A mission must be clearly defined and managed. An intuitive understanding of mission is not enough. (EMPLOYEE) VALUES Employee’s personal values PURPOSE Why the company exists (COMPANY) VALUES What the company believes in STRATEGY The competitive position and distictive competance STANDARDS AND BEHAVIORS The policies and behavioral patterns that underpin the distinctive competance and the value system Ashridge Mission Model (Cambell (1992)

REPORT TOPIC LAW Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

REPORT TOPIC LAW - Assignment Example Conflict of Laws or Private International Law covers cases where a foreign element intrudes, raising questions as to the application of foreign law or the role of foreign courts (Shaw, 1). Legal Positivism suggests that international law is not law at all because there is no true governing body that imposes the law and enforces its obedience. Contrast this with the laws of a State where the State itself is tasked with the promulgation and enforcement of the law. Instead, International Law is enforced by agreement between parties to a treaty, convention or international organization. For example, states that are parties to the Geneva Conventions of 1949 commit themselves to follow the rules of war set forth in those Conventions. State parties to the Kyoto Protocols bind themselves to the provisions of those environmental-safeguard protocols. Even the United Nations and its subordinate bodies exist because the UN State Parties signed or acceded to the UN Charter to become members of th e United Nations. Aside from Treaties and Conventions, which are essentially multilateral treaties, there are two other sources of international law. They are international custom and general principals of law recognized by civilized nations (ICJ Statute Art 38).